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--- british-awal [2024/12/28 07:12] – [FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS] sazli
+++ british-awal [2024/12/28 16:28] (current) – [Pertengahan 1880-an: Susu Tin Nestle di Singapura] sazli
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 Gambar hiasan: biarawati Perancis yang bertugas sebagai jururawat di Singapore General Hospital sejak 1 Ogos 1885: //"Nuns from the Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus at Victoria Street taking care of babies abandoned at the convent, early 1900s. Many of these French nuns took up nursing duties at the General Hospital on 1 August 1885 due to the shortage of trained professionals."// (National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board @ Pattarin Kusolpalin, BiblioAsia Jul-Sep 2016: {{ :makalah:v12-issue2_angelswhite.pdf ||}}[[https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-12/issue-2/jul-sep-2016/angels-in-white/|"Angels in White: Early Nursing in Singapore"]]).
-====== Kronologi ======
 ===== Kesan Revolusi Industri di England =====
@@ Line 38: / Line 37: @@
 (Sumber: Gabrielle Palmer, 1988. The Politics of Breastfeeding, m.s. 180-181).
-==== THE 'MATERNITY' LETTERS ====
-//"'Maternity: Letters from Working Women' edited by Margaret Llewellyn Davies depicts the lives of some women at the turn of the twentieth century. As literate women and members of the Women's Co-operative Guild, they were acutely aware that they were better off than many others. The fact that most of them had led lives of unceasing pain and humiliation makes the experience of the other nineteenth century British working women all the more horrifying. ... \\
-.....\\
-'Maternity' reveals that a life of bad health, overwork, under-nutrition and sexual exploitation was the lot of most women.  ... Though the medical world continued to emphasise the ignorance of mothers, the mothers' letter in 'Maternity' show women's awareness of the needs of mothers and babies. Most mothers did breastfeed and took a shy pride on this fact. When they failed to breastfeed this was yet another sorrow to add to the endless account of misery. They knew that artificial feeding was dangerous and also that stress exacerbated physical problems even though this was not acknowledged 'scientifically' ... The very anxiety that they might not be able to breastfeed would have increased the risk of lactation failure."//
-(Sumber: Gabrielle Palmer, 1988. The Politics of Breastfeeding, m.s. 185-188).
-//"The milk companies have argued that their products kept children alive for all the mothers who could not breastfeed and there was a 'demand'. The fact that the new organisation and stresses of industrialised society created so many of the burdens for women that prevented them from breastfeeding meant that the companies themselves were creating the conditions which ensured that their product would be needed. \\
-..... \\
-...the effect of this on infant feeding has been repeated around the world. The process of industrialised urbanisation appears to cut women off from their support systems and expose them to stresses, both emotional and physiological, which make it more difficult for them to breastfeed. Hard work itself does not impede lactation, as clear evidence from so many rural societies indicates, nor living in a city, as thousands of privileged Europeans and North Americans have proved in the 1980s. ... Milk companies and doctors are always claiming that women do not want to breastfeed. This seems exceedingly rare in the rural situation, but does occur in the urban. ... The introduction of damaging practices makes breastfeeding failure likely and a mother who experienced difficulties is bound to discourage her daughter. Several of the letters in 'Maternity' describe the experience of a 'gathered breast' (i.e. mastitis) or an abscess. This indicates that they were probably not feeding the baby frequently in the early days after the birth and this early restriction is often linked with later lactation failure. ... \\
-..... \\
-There are so many changes which accompany the process of industrialisation that it is an oversimplication to pinpoint one as a cause of decline in breastfeeding. Among these confitions were a loss of intimate knowledge and support, an intrusion of erroneous medical supervsion into a personal relationship and the widespread availability of products which were promoted as adequate breastmilk substitutes. The new methods of production which made life more difficult for breastfeeding women and increased the numbers of dead babies were producing hundreds of products which were widely advertised with extravagant and misleading claims and were making a good profit for their manufacturers."//
-(Sumber: Gabrielle Palmer, 1988. The Politics of Breastfeeding, m.s. 189-190).
 ==== FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS ====
@@ Line 63: / Line 47: @@
 (Sumber: Gabrielle Palmer, 1988. The Politics of Breastfeeding, m.s. 191-193).
-==== THE MILK DEPOTS ====
-//"At the turn of the century the 'milk depots' were established in France, Britain and the United States with the declared aim of providing uncontaminated milk for babies. They were also a good way of monitoring the babies and their mothers. Their founder, Dr Budin, tried to encourage breastfeeding, but like so many of his contemporaries he dreaded overfeeding and steps to avoid this ruined breastfeeding for many women. These depots were the forerunners of health clinics all over the world where a cheap of free product is used to tempt mothers to come and submit to the vigilant eyes of those who know best. The decline of breastfeeding has paralleled the spread of these institutions. \\
-\\
-Many have argued that the milk depots saved lives, and certainly it must have been a relief for mothers whose milk was failing, because the skill to re-establish lactation had been lost and the change in social relations deterred them from feeding one another's babies, to knoe that they could get a supply of cheap milk for their babies. However there was no proof that the depots had any effect on the infant mortality rate which began to fall after 1905. The Medical Research Committee noted in 1917 that the drop in infant death rate was the same in widely separated towns, some of which had milk depots and some not. What the milk depots established was the link between artificial milk distribution and the health centres which persists to this day, the world over. \\
-.....\\
-Outbreaks of epidemics of infections in 1929 and 1936 were milkborne, according to the British Medical Association who issued warnings in the national press. At that time 2,000 deatgs a year were due to bovine tuberculosis. When mothers bought their week's supply of pasteurised or sterilised milk from the milk depots, it still had to be kept fresh. Sterilised milk kept better, but in fact the process destroys more nutrients than pasteurisation. Mothers also used sweetened condensed milk, either whole or skimmed depending on what they could afford, but the tin had to be opened in the shop and somehow kept uncontaminated in the home. One investigator found that diluted Nestle's condensed milk, incubated at 37 degrees centigrade, contained 11 million bacteria after twenty-four hours. Dr Coutts's report (see page 190) found most samples of infant foods already contaminated before use. Hygiene was impossible in the average overcrowded, ill-equipped home. Only the rich had water closets, and working-class people in most urban areas had middens which were large, leaky uncovered receptacles, sunk below ground level, or ash privies which were cemented at the bottom and above ground level and had ash thrown in at the front and the contents removed from the back. These facilities were often shared by several families. In the Yorkshire city of Hull between 1918 and 1939, 79 per cent of infant deaths due to diarrhoea were in housed with privies or pail closets."//
-(Sumber: Gabrielle Palmer, 1988. The Politics of Breastfeeding, m.s. 193-195).
 ===== 1839-1872: Perkembangan Produk Susu di Britain =====
@@ Line 89: / Line 63: @@
 //"Nestle tinned milk was already available in Singapore, and unassuming advertisements appeared sporadically in The Straits Times."// (Lenore Manderson, International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 12, No. 4 (1982), pp. 597-616 (20 pages): {{ ::buku:jstor-org-stable-45131579.pdf ||}}[[https://www.jstor.org/stable/45131579|"BOTTLE FEEDING AND IDEOLOGY IN COLONIAL MALAYA: THE PRODUCTION OF CHANGE"]]).
+===== Akhir 1800-an: Khidmat Kesihatan Isteri dan Anak Imigran Eropah =====
+//"Late in the nineteenth century, English women arrived in Malaya as colonists' wives, feminizing the domestic space and establish a more permanent colonial presence. ... English women's concern with their own maternity, infant care and the health and education of their children flowed over to the maternity and mothering of other women, and state services were developed in response."// (Lenore Manderson, 1998: [[https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621826|Maternities and Modernities]]: "Shaping reproduction: maternity in early twentieth-century Malaya", m.s.31).